Knowledge Networks Social Capital

Introduction It can be said that the most important resource of the organization is the knowledge and skills that are possessed by the workforce. This knowledge keeps on increasing since the employees keep on learning new things everyday.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Knowledge Networks Social Capital specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this regard, it can be said that teamwork is preferred since it allows for the enhancement of the learning process among the employees. The teams or the social networks that are used to enhance the knowledge acquisition process of the employees are referred to as the knowledge networks (Ahmadi Eskandari 2011). There are two types of knowledge networks namely-communities of practice and communities of interest. According to Inkpen Tsang (2005), community of practice refers to a group of individuals that have a desire for learning and share the same goals. The interactions of t he members in the community of practice can be enhanced by making use of the technology. Community of interest is considered to consist of more members than a community of practice and it is very instrumental in facilitating the learning process of the members. The outcome of the community of interest can be enhanced by putting in place discussion forums and by making use of technology. These will facilitate meaningful interactions between the members. On the other hand, social capital refers to the institution’s norms or cultures that influence the extent of interactions in an organization. This is based on the premise that social interactions are very critical in enhancing the economic development of the society. It has been postulated that horizontal associations have a tendency for reducing the cost that is associated with doing a business in a particular place. This can be attributed to the fact that social networks facilitate coordination and cooperation. However, it mu st be mentioned that social networks that are parochial have a tendency for working against the societal interests. For example, cartels can have the effect of impeding economic and social development. Role of community of practice According to Verburg Andriessen (2011), a community of practice refers of group of people that are interested in the learning process and who share common goals. However, to enhance the efficiency of the community of practice, it is critical to have a moderator to provide guidance and support.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Community of practice allows for the unlocking of the knowledge that may be latent in the minds of the participants. This allows the organization to take advantage of that knowledge to improve on its processes. Knowledge management Linh-Chi (2012), argues that knowledge management refers to the process through which the organ ization promotes the learning process among its employees. This enables the sharing of skills and knowledge among the employees, which has a very great bearing on the performance of the employees and the productivity of the organization. Most of the large organization set aside some resources to specifically cater for knowledge management. In fact, knowledge management is taken to be part and parcel of business strategy. In addition, the department of human resource management is charged with the responsibility of knowledge management. Shannak et al. (2012) is of the view that the major purpose of knowledge management is to enhance the performance of the organization. Additionally, it can be used to provide the organization with the competitive advantage. More importantly, knowledge management is very essential in promoting innovation among the employees in the organization. Some of the areas in which the knowledge in the organization can be used include: product development, new te chnologies, markets and customers. It must also be mentioned that knowledge is also concerned with processes and operations of the concerned organization. Furthermore, knowledge and information are required for new business strategies, production and logistics. There are two types of knowledge that are found in an organization namely; tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is that type of information that cannot be codified, but which influences the manner in which the members of the organization carry out their duties. It must be appreciated that tacit knowledge can be found in the organizational values, practices and norms. On the other hand, explicit knowledge can be stored in the manner that is appropriate for the organization.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Knowledge Networks Social Capital specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At the heart of knowledge management is the desire to manage the i ntangible knowledge assets in the organization. The reason for this is that knowledge is a very important element in an organization as it enhances its competitive advantage. For this reason, the organization would want its employees to learn new ways of doing things. Additionally, most organizations are of the view that new knowledge facilitates product development, which in turn creates new business opportunities. This makes the organizations to be wary of any knowledge losses. To achieve this, the organization would want to minimize the risks that are associated with outsourcing, downsizing and resignations (Keh-Luh, Chi Chiu-Mei 2012). Furthermore, the organizations would also want to take advantage of the latent knowledge that can be realized from the organization and the employees. Some of the strategies that are employed to unearth that hidden knowledge include: enhancing the personnel information systems, developing mentoring services, and aligning the organization culture to be supportive of the learning process. For this reason, it can be said that knowledge management is concerned with the unraveling of the necessary knowledge and the dissemination of that knowledge throughout the organization. This knowledge is very important as it helps in activities such as problem solving, strategic planning, and decision making. Others are of the opinion that knowledge management is concerned with the creation of new knowledge, sharing of that knowledge, and the strategies that are used to enhance the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge. Knowledge sharing is a term that is used to denote the sharing of knowledge, as well as the transference of knowledge between the individuals and the groups in an organization. Some of the factors that enable knowledge sharing include the organization culture and values that tend to enhance the process of knowledge sharing. These factors are instrumental in facilitating individual knowledge development as well as dealin g with the obstacles that tends to impede the process of knowledge development. In addition to that, the factors also promote the sharing of the knowledge within the organization. This is the only way in which knowledge can be converted from individual knowledge to organizational knowledge.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Knowledge networking According to Plum Hassink (2011), knowledge networking has the potential to facilitate capacity development in an organization. In addition, it must be noted that knowledge networks promote the idea of learning together. This can have a tremendous influence on the performance of the entire team and that of the entire organization in general. It has also been adduced that learning is very instrumental in influencing the performance of the organization. This is based on the premise that knowledge is very essential for any organization in this fast changing business environment. The major thrust of the knowledge networking is the human collaboration and not the technology that is used to enhance it. Part of the reason as to why there has been this trend towards knowledge network is that there has been a diminished need to approach an expert to solve the organization’s challenges. In addition, there has been advancement in technology which has facilitated ef ficient communication. This allows individuals to share ideas and knowledge. It can also be said that technology has also facilitated both informal and formal means of communication. The net effect of this is that there is a widened platform though which exchange of information can take place. In the modern era it can be said that most of the networks are supported by technology. Moreover, the traditional form of networking such as alumni are being facilitated by the electronic platforms. There are various types of networks that can be classified as small or large or even spontaneous or pre-determined. Nonetheless, the main aim of these networks is to facilitate the horizontal flow of information to the concerned parties. According to some organizations there are two classes of networks that are used namely-delivery networks and enabling networks. It has been postulated that delivery networks are intent on delivering value to the organization (Lassen 2009). On the other hand, delive ring networks are keen on enhancing the capacity of the employees to perform even better. To ensure that those knowledge networks are effective, it is critical that they should have the driving force that will enhance the sustainability of the same. In addition, there are three aspects that are considered to be the hallmarks of effective knowledge networks namely- a community of people that co-operate, a shared topic, and organizational practices that are supportive of those networks. It can also be said that a knowledge networks consists of people who interact with each other and are committed to the learning process in a bid to acquire more knowledge. They also agree on the methods that work best for them during the learning process. In addition, the members of the group decide on common approaches to issues that could be facing them. Again, knowledge networks emphasizes on the need for sharing knowledge. The efficiency of the knowledge network hinges on the platform that is used as the medium of communication by the members of the team (Magnusson 2004). Dimensions of knowledge network It must be appreciated that a knowledge network consists of a group of people who interact with each other, learn together, and also build relationships that facilitate mutual commitment. Another aspect of the networks is that they are very dynamic, and for this reason they keep on changing in terms of membership from time to time. Moreover, the external environment provides pressures on the network, which in turn influences the response of the network. There are some attributes that apply to all the networks namely-diversity, reciprocity and trust (Expà ³sito-Langa Molina-Morales 2010). Diversity is a very key component of the network in that it enhances the diversity of the ideas that are availed to the network. However, it is important to realize that too much diversity can have the effect of affecting the operations of the network due to lack of shared values and princip les. Diversity also facilitates each member of the organization to aid in the exchange of information. Additionally, there is no one who is coerced to participate in the affairs of the network. According to Huggins Johnston (2009), the outcome of the network is heavily dependent on the level of trust of the members. If the members do not develop adequate level of trust, they are not likely to open up to each other. This might impede the process of development of knowledge. The level of trust can be enhanced by increasing the opportunities for interactions in the network. It must also be appreciated that in situations in which the supervisor is present during deliberations, the members will be reluctant to open up to each other. This can be supported by the postulate that the flow of knowledge is likely to be better among peers. Reciprocity arises in situations in which all the members expect to be appreciated for their efforts in the network. Towards this end, members make tremendo us sacrifice in terms of time and resources in order to attain the goals of the network. One of the key pillars of any organization is its social capital, and its takes considerable amount of time to put up. However, this social capital can crumble due to inept management. The contribution of the members of the organization is at its best when they feel as part and parcel of the network. This sense of belonging brings down any inhibition that may hold back the members from expressing themselves freely. Care should also be taken to ensure that the members are not held back from giving their ideas by some other members who have a tendency to dominate the discussions forums. Additionally, the moderator for the discussion should ensure that the queries by the members are addressed in a timely fashion. This will tend to motivate the participants to express themselves freely. When the members of the networks work collaboratively, there is always a high chance that the solution will be fou nd much faster than would be case for individuals working in isolation on the same issue. How to enhance the outcome of knowledge networks The topic that is being considered by the network should be such that it is not too broad and impenetrable (Carlsson 2003). This will enhance the possibility that all the members will work together to unravel the solution to the issue at hand, the earliest forms of networks arose among the craftsmen. These were in form of guilds where members of a particular profession worked collaboratively so as to discover new and better ways of carrying out their trades. At the same time, they jealously guarded the knowledge acquired, but shared it freely among themselves. This had the effect of widening the knowledge base for the concerned vocations. The topic being studied should be such that it is focused on a particular issue. Therefore, the members of the network have the duty of keeping track of the current stock of knowledge and also acting as the cust odians of that knowledge. In this regard, the members should keep both the tacit knowledge as well as the explicit knowledge, and to ensure that is passed on to the other members of the network. This acts as the base upon which the acquisition of future knowledge is founded. This ensures that the knowledge possessed by the members keeps on growing as time goes by. Carlsson (2004) contends that the network must put in place measures that are meant to enhance knowledge sharing among the members. This will act as the catalyst for the development of knowledge. To enhance the outcome of the deliberations of the networks it is important to have the main themes that need to be tackled. This would in turn bring about finer themes that are meant to address specific issues that may arise. Consequently, this would guide the members in determining the relevance of the solutions that they might proposed. It is also important for the members of the networks to identify those areas in which they a re weak with a view to building capacity in those areas. To facilitate the identification of the areas in which the members of the network can build capacity, it is important o make use of self assessment framework. Additionally, the use of self assessment framework also facilitates in the creation of the common focus and language that can be used in the discussions by the members of the network. Networks are also critical in the identification of the knowledge that is already known by its members. This knowledge is also augmented by the collective experience of the members of the network. Since the members have both the tacit and the explicit knowledge coupled with the experience in its application, they are usually in a better position to determine whether the information should be shared or not. Social capital According to Felà ­cio, Couto Caiado (2012), social capital is very essential in helping the company to innovate and retain its competitive edge. Social capital can be co nsidered ass the set of skills and knowledge that are embedded in the relationships that are forged in the organizations. It has also been said that those individuals who perform well are invariably connected to others who also perform well. For this reason, social capital is considered to be an asset in an organization. Members of a social group help each other in the acquisition of knowledge, and they are obligated to support each other in their endeavors. It can also be noted that those organization that perform well are known for the manner in which they utilize the skills and knowledge that are inherent in their workforces. However, in order to take advantage of the networks in the organization, there is a need to eliminate structural holes. This arises when individuals in different groups tends to concentrate on their activities without extending assistance to others that may belong to different groups. For this reason, these structural holes may have the effect of slowing dow n the dissemination of knowledge in the organization. This can be supported by the assertion that the people in different structural holes tend to disseminate different information. Thus the structural holes should be viewed as the weak links in the organization, which hinder the free flow of information in the organization. Social capital is characterized by three dimensions namely- the structural dimension, the cognitive dimension and the relational dimension. The structural dimension refers to the ties that exist in the network and which affects the ease with which members are able to bond with each other. On the other hand, cognitive dimension is concerned with the shared narratives and language that is used by the members in the group. The relational dimension refers to the values, norms and the roles that each member of the network is expected to play. When all these dimensions come into play they help in the growth of the intellectual capital in the organization. There are di fferent types of social capital that are appropriate for different goals. In this regard, there are three different characteristics that are associated with social capital. The first characteristic deals with the benefits of relevance, timeliness, and trustworthiness that are accrued by making use of the networks. Secondly social capital facilitates the means through which the members in the network can be influenced and controlled, as well as freeing them up from that control. The other characteristic is the social solidarity. This arises when members of the group repetitively participate in the activities of the network. This brings about mutual trust and obligation. Individual learning Traditional human management practices emphasizes on individual learning as a means of enhancing the capacity of the organization. Due to the fact that knowledge is taken to be one of the important prerequisites of the success of the organization, it is important to adopt the right approaches to le arning. Individual learning can also be considered as means of effecting organizational leaning. Towards this end, it has been postulated that the individual learning should be continuous so as to enable the organization to respond to the changes in the environment. This is the only way in which the individual can remain relevant at the workplace (Aslam et al. 2011). It can be said that individual learning takes into account the needs of the individual students. Individual learning usually takes place on a one-on-one basis, whereby the trainer takes an individual through a particular lesson. Some of the factors that the trainer will need to take in consideration during training include: the learning environment, attitude, maturity, motivation, interests, and the pace of learning for the individual learners. Some of the advantages that are associated with individual learning include the fact that the learning process can be customized to respond to the needs of the different learners . Additionally, the learners are allowed to learn at a pace that is convenient for them. The learners can also determine the method and the information that they can learn. Organizational Learning Organizational learning can be considered to be the hallmark of an organization that is continuously adapting to respond to changes in the environment (Wan, Compeau Haggerty 2012). A learning organization is characterized by identification, storage and dissemination of knowledge throughout the organization. This learning is facilitated by the interactions that are forged in the organization. However, the learning process should not be a by-product of the normal activities of the organization. Instead, it should be part of a deliberate process that is intended to widen the knowledge base of the organization. Again, it must be realized that for the knowledge to benefit the entire organization, it must be stored in convenient manner and disseminated to the other members of the organization. In addition, knowledge will need to be transferred in a manner that is convenient and which enhances the understanding of the recipients. Another very important feature of learning organizations is that they learn from their mistakes. The organization must continuously learn to be able to respond to the challenges that are presented by changes. Failure to embrace learning will have the effect of rendering an organization obsolete as time goes by. Organization learning is a social process whereby interactions play a major role in the development of knowledge. Towards this end, the organization must have a culture and a set of values that are supportive of these interactions. A major difference between organizational learning and individual learning is that individual learning is intended to empower individuals while organizational learning is intended to benefit the entire organization. Organizational learning and adaptation from a systems perspective According to Yanow (2000), the s ystem approach advocates for cohesiveness and independency to permeate through out the structures of the organization. In such a scenario member of the organization will be in a position to work on common goals and achieve results by being committed. In addition, during the process of working on the goals, the members will continuously monitor the efficiency of the approach adopted. Moreover, the learning process should embrace diversity in that everybody in the organization should be committed to the realization of the goals of the organization. System approach investigates how our actions influence others and the learning process in general. This implies that human beings are interdependent on each other. Additional, the system approach has it that one should view the big picture in the problem solving process. This is contrary to the conventional approach whereby the problem is broken down into smaller pieces to facilitate easier problem solving. Failure to look at the big pictur e could have the effect of implementing solutions that could have negative effects on others as well as on the entire organization. KM related HR implications According to Pastor, Santana Sierra (2010), knowledge management is concerned with the identification, storage and the sharing of knowledge. On the other hand, human resource management is concerned with aspects such as recruitment training and hiring of employees. For this reason, knowledge management can have an impact on the training that is provided to the employees by the human resource department. Additionally, knowledge management challenges human resources management in aspects such as intellectual property, unit boundaries and professional identity. Consequently, the perception of the human resources on the issue of human resource development is shifted from that of capacity development to that of nurturing the necessary interactions within the organization, with a view to widening the knowledge base of the organizat ion. In addition, knowledge management helps the human resource management to organize training that is based on the identified areas in which the employees will need to be coached on. According to the knowledge based view, knowledge is the most important resource for the organization. Therefore, knowledge influences the competitiveness of the organization relative to that of the other organizations in the same industry. Moreover, knowledge is a key resource as well as a major basis for the sustainability of the organization. To ensure sustainability of the organization, there is need to adopt management practices that are sustainable. Therefore, it is apparent that knowledge management can play major role in enhancing the ability of the human resource management to adopt practices that are consistent with the sustainability issue. It must also be acknowledged that knowledge is very essential in enhancing innovation and creativity in the organization. According to the human resource management practices, a lot of emphasis is placed on the identification of the facilitators and the inhibitors of innovation in the organization. For this reason, some of the aspects that have been highlighted include: people, structure, organization size and the availability of resources. However, other approaches on the same issue have identified other factors that can influence the ability of the organization to innovate. Some of those other factors include: organizational environment, strategic type, and organizational climate and culture. This has major impact on the strategies employed by the human resources management to promote innovation within the organization as knowledge management advocates for the use of networking in the organization. Networking is very critical since it plays a major role in widening the knowledge base of the organization, which is very instrumental in enhancing the ability of the organization to innovate. Alternatively, the organization should enco urage the employees to have differing perceptions of the challenges posed to the organization. Conclusion Knowledge can be viewed as a very important asset that can determine the success or failure of the organization. This is particularly acute for the organizations in this fast changing business environment. An organization that embraces new knowledge and uses it for its advantage will be in a position to succeed. This implies that the right strategies need to be adopted to help in the accumulation and dissemination of the relevant knowledge. To facilitate the acquisition of knowledge the organization should encourage interactions among the members. These interactions can be facilitated by the use of technology and the adoption of the right values within the organization. Additionally, the organization should encourage the strengthening of the networks since they are more efficient that working individually. Reference List Ahmadi, F, Eskandari, E 2011, ‘knowledge management and social capital of organizational networks’, Interdisciplinary Journal Of Contemporary Research In Business, 3, 7, pp. 933-943, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Aslam, H, Javaid, T, Tanveer, A, Khan, M, Shabbir, F 2011, ‘a journey from individual to organizational learning.(Exploring the linking bridge: Team Learning)’, International Journal Of Academic Research, 3, 3, pp. 738-745, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost. Carlsson, SA 2003, ‘Knowledge managing and knowledge management systems in inter-organizational networks’, Knowledge Process Management, 10, 3, p. 194, Publisher Provided Full Text Searching File, EBSCOhost. Carlsson, SA 2004, ‘Strategic Knowledge Managing within the Context of Networks’, Handbook On Knowledge Management 1: Knowledge Matters, p. 623, Publisher Provided Full Text Searching File, EBSCOhost. Expà ³sito-Langa, M, Molina-Morales, F 2010, ‘How Relational Dimensions Affect Knowledge Redundancy in Industrial Clusters’, European Planning Studies, 18, 12, pp. 1975-1992, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Felà ­cio, J, Couto, E, Caiado, J 2012, ‘Human capital and social capital in entrepreneurs and managers of small and medium enterprises’, Journal Of Business Economics Management, 13, 3, pp. 395-420, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Huggins, R, Johnston, A 2009, ‘Knowledge Networks in an Uncompetitive Region: SME Innovation and Growth’, Growth Change, 40, 2, pp. 227-259, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost. Inkpen, A, Tsang, E 2005, ‘social capital, networks, and knowledge transfer’, Academy Of Management Review, 30, 1, pp. 146-165, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Keh-Luh, W, Chi, C, Chiu-Mei, T 2012, ‘integrating human resource management and knowledge management: from the viewpoint of core employees and organizational performance’, International Journal Of Organizational Innovation, 5, 1, pp. 109-13 7, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Lassen, C 2009, ‘networking, knowledge organizations and aeromobility’, Geografiska Annaler Series B: Human Geography, 91, 3, pp. 229-243, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost. Linh-Chi, V 2012, ‘Pragmatist Perspective on Knowledge and Knowledge Management in Organizations’, International Business Research, 5, 9, pp. 78-88, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Magnusson, MG 2004, ‘Managing the knowledge landscape of an MNC: knowledge networking at Ericsson’, Knowledge Process Management, 11, 4, pp. 261-272, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Pastor, I, Santana, M, Sierra, C 2010, ‘Managing knowledge through human resource practices: empirical examination on the Spanish automotive industry’, International Journal Of Human Resource Management, 21, 13, pp. 2452-2467, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Plum, O, Hassink, R 2011, ‘Comparing knowledge networking in different knowledge ba ses in Germany’, Papers In Regional Science, 90, 2, pp. 355-371, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Shannak, R, Masa’deh, R, Al-Zu’bi, Z, Obeidat, B, Alshurideh, M, Altamony, H 2012, ‘A Theoretical Perspective on the Relationship between Knowledge Management Systems, Customer Knowledge Management, and Firm Competitive Advantage’, European Journal Of Social Science, 32, 4, pp. 520-532, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost. Verburg, R, Andriessen, E 2011, ‘A typology of knowledge sharing networks in practice’, Knowledge Process Management, 18, 1, pp. 34-44, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Wan, Z, Compeau, D, Haggerty, N 2012, ‘The Effects of Self-Regulated Learning Processes on E-Learning Outcomes in Organizational Settings’, Journal Of Management Information Systems, 29, 1, pp. 307-340, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost. Yanow, D 2000, ‘Seeing Organizational Learning: A ‘Cultural’ View’, Organization, 7, 2, p. 247, Publisher Provided Full Text Searching File, EBSCOhost. This essay on Knowledge Networks Social Capital was written and submitted by user Amber K. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Orestes as an Ancient Greek Hero Character essayEssay Writing Service

Orestes as an Ancient Greek Hero Character essayEssay Writing Service Orestes as an Ancient Greek Hero Character essay Orestes as an Ancient Greek Hero Character essayThe Orestia by Aeschylus shows Orestes as a true hero, who acts as a hero, thinks as a hero, and confronts dangers and gods as a hero. In such a way, Aeschylus attempted to depict the ancient Greek hero, who acts and lives according to Greek norms, traditions and ideals of heroism.Orestes personifies the hero character in the play, who acts justly. However, he becomes a hero, when he suffers severe pain because: â€Å"Nothing forces us to know. What we do not want to know except pain† (Aeschylus, 2012, p.131). His sufferings are attributes of the true Greek hero because a person cannot become a hero for Greeks, if he has never suffered and felt pain. Orestes is the person, whose moral sufferings are enormous. Nevertheless, as a hero he copes with his sufferings and overcomes them successfully that is also the feature attributed to the true hero.   At the same time, re-establishment justice through the revenge for the death of t he father is the attribute of a hero in the ancient Greek society. Orestes acts as a hero killing Clytemnestra, who was responsible for the death of his father. Even though he suffers, he is always aware of his moral duty to revenge that made him a hero in the perception of the public in ancient Greece.Orestes faces the trial headed by ancient Greek gods, including Athena, who is apparently on his side. In such a way, the author attempts to show that gods support the feeling of revenge in the main character and Athena stands for Orestes during the trial. And again Orestes acts as a hero since he confronts the trial being certain in the righteousness of his deed. He does not even think of escape and even Athena notices his strife for his righteousness: â€Å"You wish to be called righteous rather than act right. [] I say, wrong must not win by technicalities.†Ã‚  (Aeschylus, 2012, p.193). Instead, he is bold and ready to accept the decision of the court.Orestes, as a hero, con fronts not only the prosecution from the part of gods and people but he also confronts remorse: â€Å"Wisdom comes through suffering. Trouble, with its memories of pain† (Aeschylus, 2012, p.128). Orestes becomes wise and suffers from his wisdom that is the characteristic of the true Greek hero, who is wise and aware of his wisdom. As a hero, he confronts the severe internal conflict and suffers because he considers his act could be totally wrong. Therefore, the true hero is not afraid of gods and his own remorse. Instead, he acts boldly and justly.Therefore, the hero of Aeschylus Orestia, Orestes, is a symbol of revenge but, at the same time, he is a symbol of the traditional Greek hero, who faces numerous challenges and overcomes them successfully. He suffers the external and internal pressure but, as a true hero, he acts responsibly, boldly and bravely. He overcomes his sufferings, challenges gods and people but acts in accordance to his moral duty and responsibility. This is why Orestes is perceived as the true ancient Greek hero, the person, who often neglects common well-being for the sake of the fulfillment of his duty.

Racial Segregation based on Black Boy by Richard Wright Essay

Racial Segregation based on Black Boy by Richard Wright - Essay Example d the Jim Crow laws and the rise of Klu Klux Klan, a white racist group that lynched, kidnapped, beat, or even murdered blacks to prove their supremacy. On the other side African American culture, its literature and arts flourished giving rise to the Harlem Renaissance. Richard Wright fought hard to resist segregation and refused to be forced into subservience as most of the blacks of that period did. As we read about his childhood one can visualise the sufferings and humiliation the African Americans had to endure in the early 1990s. In his book Wright portrays all the violence, brutality, despair and powerlessness that goes with racism. The whites abused him physically and verbally. In the book there is mention of how when he was young he had to suffer regular physical and verbal abuse in his workplace and how his white colleagues even went to the extent of hitting him with a bottle for not addressing a white man as "sir". â€Å"for the first time I noticed that there were two lines of people at the ticket window, a â€Å"white† line and a â€Å"black† line. During my visit at Granny’s a sense of the two races had been born in me with sharp concreteness that would never die until I died." (Wright R, 1945) These lines from Black Boy show that Wright understood what it was to be a black boy right from his childhood days. The fear, the violence the blacks faced everyday is beautifully put forth in the book. Both the blacks and whites resorted to violence whenever they wanted to control or show their power and this show of violence was predominant in the lives of Southerners. Richard turns violent many times like when he rebels against his father and kills the kitten in a fit of rage. Similarly when he burns down the house he gets thoroughly beaten. He overcomes his fear of the gang of boys by attacking them. Racial segregation or racial prejudices also instilled fear and mistrust in the society. This is evident in many of the episodes of the Black Boy. Richard

Political Posturing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Political Posturing - Case Study Example Although seeking to determine the political aspects that are involved in the ongoing investigation would necessarily require a much different scope of research, this particular analysis will seek to be solely neutral and concentric upon perceived and possible violations of law that have taken place as well as seeking to explain these to the reader. Finally, as a means of analyzing the Solyndra debacle within the terms of economic thought, this particular analysis will consider the words and philosophy of Milton Friedman. With regards to the first potential law that could very well apply to the Solyndra collapse and actions preceding this, the reader can and should understand that unlawful and unethical accounting practices have been evidenced within businesses and corporate entities for as long as the government has been in existence. Such unethical and illegal accounting practices have been the cause for the collapse of such corporations as Enron and Lehman Brothers. Ultimately, the desire to engage in such a process is born out of two distinct factors (Antle, 2012). The first of these is with regards to representing an unfavorable economic situation as a favorable or neutral one. Similarly, the secondary reason for engaging in such an unethical and illegal practice is due to a hope that by affecting such a sleight of hand, the firm will be able to turn around its fortunes and proved to be profitable in the very near future. Accordingly, individuals within the decision-making structure of Solyndra are accused by the federal government of accounting fraud due to the fact that federal prosecutors believe they misrepresented key profitability and earnings data as a means of securing further federal aid and loans. Although it is not the purpose of this particular analysis to seek to judge Solyndra based upon the accusations which have been elaborated upon bus far in the analysis, it can and should be inferred that although these charges are distinct and severe, it is not unheard of within the corporate world to engage in such practices as having been defined. This does not make them better in any way shape or form; however, this is said to present an overall level of understanding within the mind of the reader that such an unethical and unlawful set of actions falls well within perceivable and expected outcomes that such a firm might have engaged in. If indeed such accusations are true, and ethical framework which could have helped Solyndra to steer clear of such a disastrous course of action would necessarily have been with regards to refusing any further loans based upon faulty or incomplete information.  

Library Ict Essay Example for Free

Library Ict Essay Introduction Rapid developments in information and communication technologies (ICT) and their wide application in all aspects of life have led to dramatic changes. These changes are so revolutionary that is not realistic to expect stability in their wake 1 . Information technology (IT) entered into libraries, especially academic and research libraries, during the 1960s. Libraries employed IT to speed up their daily activities and reduce their operating costs. Many repetitive activities were upgraded using IT 2 . IT allows integration of library activities and increases efficiency and enables users to have remote access to information and around the clock access. New technologies provide unlimited information from different sources and facilitate reformatting data from different sources 3. Definition Ebijuwa and ToAnyakoha (2005) 4-5 define ICT as tools and as well as means used for collection, capture, process, storage, transmission and dissemination of information†. The American Library Association (1983) 5 defines IT as the application of computers and other technologies to the acquisition, organization,storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. The computers are used to process and store data, while telecommunications technology provides information communication tools, which make it possible for users to access databases and link them other computer networks at different locations. IT and ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) are used somewhat interchangeably. Objectives of the Study The major objectives of this study are 1. To identify the ICT infrastructure facilities available in the university libraries. 2. To identify the ICT based software implemented in the university libraries. 3. To find out the various types of electronic resources available in the university libraries. Methodology The study is based on the primary data collected from the government university libraries and deemed university libraries given in table 1. Table 1. List of University Libraries S. No Name of the University 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Anna University,Chennai University of Madras, Chennai The Tamil Nadu. Dr. Ambedkar Law University,Chennai Tamil Nadu Dr. M. G. R Medical University,Chennai M. G. R . Educational and Research Institute, Chennai SRM University,Kattankulathur Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences,Chennai B. S. Abdur Rahman University,Chennai Bharath University,Chennai Sri Ramachandra University,Chennai Deemed universities Type of university Government Universities 8. 9. 10. A structured questionnaire was designed to obtain data. The questionnaire was divided into four sections: Hardware, Software, Technologies, and Electronic Resources. Sixteen questionnaires were distributed among university librarians, of which 10 university librarians were responded (62.5%). Review of Literature Walmiki and Ramakrishnegowda (2009) 7 studied ICT infrastructures in university libraries of Karnataka and found that most of the libraries were uâ€Å"lack sufficient hardware, software facilities and do not have adequate internet nodes and bandwidth†. The campus LANs were not fully extended to exploit the benefits of digital information environment. Ahmad and Fatima (2009) 8 found that researchers use a variety of ICT products and services for research and further remarked that ICT products help â€Å"to find  information, access information, manage, integrate, evaluate, create, and communicate information more easily†. It was recommended that training be organized to increase the use of ICT-based products and services. Adeleke and Olorunsola (2010) 9 studied ICT and library operations found that ICT facilities were the major constraints facing libraries in the use of tools. Shafi-Ullah and Roberts (2010) 10 found that ICT infrastructure is necessary to make provide a research culture in higher education institutions and recommended allocating funds for ICT infrastructure. Etebu (2010) 11 studied ICT availability and found a situation that is not encouraging. Patil (2010) 12 found that users were not trained to use ICT- based products and services and further recommended an ICT training programme to increase the use of ICT products and services. Data Analysis The study was carried out in ten university libraries. The demographic information related to these respondents is shown in table 2. Table 2. Demographic Information about Respondents S. No Description 1. 2. Total Percentage 40% 60% 100% Government University 4 Deemed University Total 6 10. Five ICT infrastructures such as computers, printers, laptops, scanners and photocopiers were identified for this study and same is shown in table 3. Table 3. ICT infrastructure vs. University Libraries S. No Description ICT Infrastructure 110 1. Computers 1 4 11-20 21- 31 30 above 2 3 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 1. 5 5 2. 1 2 3. 2 1 Total WAM Rank (10) (40) 2. Printers 9 1 (20) (30) 0 0 (90) (10) 3. Laptops 9 0 (0) (0) 0 1 (90) (0) (0) (10) 4. Scanners 9 1 0 0 10 (100) 10 (100) 2. 1 2 (90) (10) 5. Photocopiers 9 1 (0) (0) 0 0 2. 1 2 (90) (10) (0) (0) It can be seen from table 3 that 4 (40% ,WAM 3. 2, rank 1) libraries were between 11 and 20 computers, followed by printers, scanners, and photocopiers ranging between 1 and 10. ICT infrastructure mentioned in table 3 were further distributed library-wise, shown in table 4. Table 4. ICT Infrastructure vs. University Libraries S. N Description Government University Libraries n=4 Total Deemed University Libraries n=6 110 11- 21- 31 20 30 above 1 0 2 (50) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 4 N 1A 10 (0) 0 1120 3 (50) 0 (0) 0 2130 2 31 above 1 6 Total N A 1. Computers (0) 1 (0) (25) (25) (0) 2. Printers 0 3 1 0 (100) (0) (0) 4 0 6 (33. 33) (16.67) (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 6 (100) 6 (100) 6 (100) 6 (100) (0) (75) (25) (0) 3. Laptops 3 1 0 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (100) (0) (60) 4 0 5 (75) (25) (0) 4. Scanners 0 4 0 (100) (0) (83. 33) (0) 4 0 5 1 (0) (100) (0) 5. Photocopiers 0 3 1 (100) (0) (83. 33) (16. 67) (00 4 0 6 0 (0) 0 (0) (0) (75) (25) (0) (100) (0) (100) It can be seen from table 4 that 2 (50%) government university libraries had more than 31 computers and 3 (50%) deemed university libraries had from 11 to 20 computers. All libraries 4 (100%) from government universities and 5 of those from deemed university libraries had scanners. Three government university libraries and 6 deemed university libraries had between 1 and 10 photocopiers. Four important software applications library automation, digital library, e-learning, and digitization were identified and further ascertained using an Objective Scaling System. The results are shown in table 5. Table 5. ICT based Software in University Libraries S. No Description ICT based Software Total WAM Rank Yes No 1 (10) 9 (90) 9 (90) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 1. 0 4 1. 1 3 1. 9 1 1. 9 1 1. Library Automation Software 9 (90) 2. Digital Library Software 1 (10) 3. E-learning Software. 1 (10) 4. Digitization Software 0 (0) (Yes=Available, No=Not Available) Ninety percent of the libraries have implemented library automation and digital library software. Most of the libraries have yet to implement e-learning software and digitization software. The software were further distributed library-wise and are shown in table 6. Table 6. ICT based Software vs. University Libraries S. No Description ICT based Software Government Universities Libraries Deemed Universities Libraries Yes 1. Library Automation Software 3 (75) 2. Digital Library Software 0 (0) 3. Digitization Software 0 (0) 4. E-learning Software 1 (25) No 1 (25) 4 (100) 0 (0) 3 (75) Total 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) Yes 6 (100) 1 No 0 (0) 5 Total 10 (100) 10 (16. 67) (83. 33) (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 6 (100) 6 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) (Yes=Available, No=Not Available) Three-quarters of government university libraries and 6 (100%) deemed university libraries have implemented library automation , while one (25%) government university and one (16. 67%) deemed university had implemented both e-learning and digital library software. Technologies such as barcode, smart card, RFID, videoconferencing, and Internet technonologies were identified and are shown in table 7. Table 7. ICT based Technologies vs. University Libraries S. No Description ICT based Technologies Total WAM Rank Yes 1. Barcode Technology 2. Smart card Technology 9 (90) 3 (30) 3. RFID Technology 3 (30) 4. Video Conference Technology 0 (0) 5. Internet Technology 10 (100) No 1 (10) 7 (70) 7 (70) 10 (100) 0 (0) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 2. 00 1 1. 00 5 1. 3 3 1. 3 3 1. 9 2 (Yes=Available, No=Not Available) All the libraries surveyed provide internet facilities, while 90% have implemented barcode technology. Three libraries have implemented smart card and RFID technologies. None of the libraries has implementing videoconferencing. The technologies mentioned in table 7 were distributed library-wise and are shown in table 8. Table 8. ICT-based Technologies Universities Libraries S. No Description ICT based Technologies in University Libraries Government Universities Deemed Universities Yes 1. Barcode Technology 3 (75) No 1 (25) Total 4 (100) Yes 6 (100) No 0 (0) Total 10 (100) 2. Smart card Technology 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 0 (0) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 1 5 10 (16. 67) (83. 33) (100) 1 5 10 3. RFID Technology 2 (50) (16. 67) (83.33) (100) 6 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 6 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 4. Internet Technology 4 (100) 0 (0) 5. Video Conference Technology (Yes=Available, No=Not Available) All libraries in government and deemed universities provide Internet facilities. Seventy-five percent of government university libraries and 100% of deemed university libraries have implemented barcode technology. Nine electronic resources were identified for this study and are shown in table 9. Table 9. Electronic Resources vs. University Libraries S. No Description E-Resources in University Libraries Yes 1. E-Books 6 (60) 2 E-Journals 9 (90) 3. Full text Databases 5 (50) 4. Bibliographic databases 4 (40) 5. CD-ROM databases 8 (80) 6. E-Learning Resources 7 (70) 7. ETD 4 No 4 (40) 1 (10) 1 (10) 6 (60) 2 (20) 3 (30) 6 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 1. 4 7 1. 7 4 1. 8 2 1. 4 8 1. 1 9 1. 9 1 1. 6 6 Total WAM Rank (40) 8. DVD 7 (70) 9. Library Consortium 8 (80) (60) 3 (30) 2 (20) (100) 10 (100) 10 (100) 1. 8 2 1. 7 4 (Yes=Available, No=Not Available) Nearly all the libraries subscribe to electronic journals, and an almost equal number belong to a library consortium. Electronic resources mentioned in table 10 were further distributed library-wise and are shown in table 10. Table 10. Electronic Resources vs. University Libraries S. No Description Electronic Resources in University Libraries Government Universities Deemed Universities Yes 1. E-Books 2 (50) 2. E-Journals 4 (100) 3. Fulltextdatabases 1 (25) 4. Bibliographic databases 2 (50) 5. CD-ROM databases 3 (75) 6. E-Learning Resources 3 (75) 7. ETD 1 (25) 8. DVD 2 No 2 (50) 0 (0) 3 (75) 2 (50) 1 (25) 1 (25) 3 (75) 2 Total 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 Yes 4 No 2 Total 6. (66. 67) (33. 33) (100) 5 1 6 (83. 33) (16. 67) (100) 3 (50) 2 3 (50) 4 6 (100) 6 (33. 33) (66. 67 (1) 5 1 6 (83. 33) (16. 67) (100) 4 2 6 (66. 67) (33. 33) (100) 3 (50) 5 3 (50) 1 6 (100) 6 (50) 9. Library Consortium 4 (100) (50) 0 (0) (100) 4 (100) (83. 33) (16. 67) (100) 4 2 6 (66. 67) (33. 33) (100) (Yes=Available, No=Not Available) All the libraries from government universities and a large number from deemed universities subscribe to e-journals. large number have acquired other electronic resources and belong to library consortia. Conclusion and Recommendations. The application of ICTs are increasing in academic libraries, especially in the university environment. Users’ expectations have increased due to developments in technologies. The study recommends the following The University Libraries must increase the numbers of computer available to enable the users to maximize the usage of ICT-based resources and services. The Digital Library Service† is one of the most useful services in the university library. Users can access digital resources using a number of different open source digital library software packages. The libraries should implement digital library software. It is found that no library was implemented digitization software. It is very useful to digitize rare collections such as older and out of print editions. References 1. Webster, F. (2001). A new politics. In Webster, F. (Ed. ), Culture and politics in the Information Age. London: Routledge. 2. Igwe, P. O. (1986). The electronic age libraries: Present and future prospects. International Library Review, 34(1):43-52. 3. Haglund, L. , Olsson. (2008). The impact oo university libraries of changes in information behavior among academic researchers: A multiple case study. The Journal of Academic librarianship, 34 (1):51-69. 4. Ebijuwa, A. A. (2005). Information and Communication Technology in university libraries: The Nigeria experience. Journal of Library and Information Science, 7(12) :23-30. 5. ToAnyakoha, M. W. (2005). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in library services. Coal City Libraries, 2(12) :. 2-12. 6. American Library Association (1983). The ALA glossary of library and information science. Chicago. ALA. 7. Walmiki, R. H. , Ramakrishnegowda (2009). ICT infrastructures in university libraries in Karnataka. Annals of Library and Information Studies, 56:236-241. 8. Ahmad, N. , Fatima, N. (2009). Usage of ICT products and services for research in social sciences at Aligarh Muslim University. DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology, 29(2):. 25-30. 9. Adeleke, A. A. , Olorunsola, R. (2010). ICT and Library operations: More on the online cataloguing and classification tools and techniques in Nigerian libraries. The Electronic Library, 28(3):453-462. 10. Is ICT infrastructure capable to accommodate standardized library management systems? : Case studies of library automation from public sector universities in Islamabad (Pakistan). Available: http://www. crl. du. ac. in/ical09/papers/index_files/ical-44_191_402_1_RV. pdf 11. Etebu, A. T. (2010). ICT Availability in Niger Delta University Libraries. Library Philosophy and Practice. Available: http://unllib. unl. edu/LPP/etebu3. htm 12. Patil, S. G. (n. d. ). Usage of ICT Products and Services for research at MET’s institute of engineering, Bhujbal Knowledge City (met-bkc-ioe): A case study. Available: http://knol. google. com/k/usage-of-ict-products-and-services-forresearch#

Critical Complexity :: Writing Personal Narrative Papers

Critical Complexity When I heard Mr. Sabol announce the topic for W131’s latest assignment, an exploratory essay, I was furious. Of a world of scintillating and fascinating topics, he picked â€Å"writing† as the subject of the class’s papers. Writing, of course, was not my favorite theme; I felt the topic had been so overused over the course of the semester that writing any more about it would be futile and destructive to any shred of creativity the class had left. Furthermore, I had expected to be allowed to explore the topics that interested me the most outside of class[d1] . Regardless of my expectations, I had been stuck with an assignment I didn’t want to do. I kept asking myself why on earth I should write about writing[d2] . For that matter, I didn’t understand what purpose it would serve. At first I just viewed the topic as a way to give W131 students more homework. Perhaps it was a way of cruel fate driving me over the edge of sanity. Maybe it was just a matter of giving Mr. Sabol what he wanted to hear from our exploratory papers, not a matter of free thinking and the true exploration of our external and internal worlds. However, a notion began nagging at the back of my mind – there had to be a better answer than the ones I had come up with before. They were answers to the problem that were born of frustration and impatience, not of careful thought and consideration. I decided then that, as simple and perhaps insignificant as my personal problems with the topic were, I needed to address them in some way. Addressing my problems with the assignment would make me take time to think critically about my dilemma and find the answers that could help me become more motivated with the topic[d3] . I felt it was the only way I could even begin my exploratory essay without pulling all my hair out. Of course I didn’t have the answer to my initial question yet – What’s the purpose behind writing about writing? As I could not find the answer in a textbook or get a straight answer about it from Mr. Critical Complexity :: Writing Personal Narrative Papers Critical Complexity When I heard Mr. Sabol announce the topic for W131’s latest assignment, an exploratory essay, I was furious. Of a world of scintillating and fascinating topics, he picked â€Å"writing† as the subject of the class’s papers. Writing, of course, was not my favorite theme; I felt the topic had been so overused over the course of the semester that writing any more about it would be futile and destructive to any shred of creativity the class had left. Furthermore, I had expected to be allowed to explore the topics that interested me the most outside of class[d1] . Regardless of my expectations, I had been stuck with an assignment I didn’t want to do. I kept asking myself why on earth I should write about writing[d2] . For that matter, I didn’t understand what purpose it would serve. At first I just viewed the topic as a way to give W131 students more homework. Perhaps it was a way of cruel fate driving me over the edge of sanity. Maybe it was just a matter of giving Mr. Sabol what he wanted to hear from our exploratory papers, not a matter of free thinking and the true exploration of our external and internal worlds. However, a notion began nagging at the back of my mind – there had to be a better answer than the ones I had come up with before. They were answers to the problem that were born of frustration and impatience, not of careful thought and consideration. I decided then that, as simple and perhaps insignificant as my personal problems with the topic were, I needed to address them in some way. Addressing my problems with the assignment would make me take time to think critically about my dilemma and find the answers that could help me become more motivated with the topic[d3] . I felt it was the only way I could even begin my exploratory essay without pulling all my hair out. Of course I didn’t have the answer to my initial question yet – What’s the purpose behind writing about writing? As I could not find the answer in a textbook or get a straight answer about it from Mr.

Operation Strategy

OPERATIONS STRATEGY Strategy: The Concept of Strategy The word strategy is derived from the Greek term â€Å"strategos† (plural strategoi; Greek: [ , ], literally meaning â€Å"army leader†) is used in Greek to mean â€Å"general†. However, the term is also used to describe a military governor which command, plan and conduct of a war.When strategy applied to business wars, the strategy refers to the establishment of objectives, the setting of direction, and the development and implementation of plans, with the goal (in place of military â€Å"victory†) of achieving ascendancy over one’s adversaries according to Andrews (1971), Ghemawat (2002) and Porter (1980). In order to have the desired competitive impact, a strategy has to operate over an extended time horizon and embrace a broad spectrum of activities, ranging from resource allocation processes to day-to-day operations.It must integrate decisions affecting these different sets of activities in to a coherent pattern, both over time and across groups that often compete for the same resources. An effective strategy also usually involves concentrating a company’s efforts and resources on a limited range of directions. Focusing resources on certain directions reduces available for others, nonetheless, so a coherent strategy usually required that a company make trade-offs among various â€Å"expected outcomes†.TYPE OF STRATEGY The word strategy is used in many contexts that is useful to identify and contrast three different types of management-related strategies. At the highest level, corporate strategy identifies the industries and markets in which a company will operate. Corporate strategists make decisions that implement these choices, including investment in and divestment of businesses together with allocation of resources among existing businesses.Business strategy, the second level of company strategy, is focused at the level of the individual business or b usiness unit within the company, and is concerned with where the business positions itself within a particular industry or market as well as with how and with what capabilities the business will win customers, cooperatively and in competition with other parties in its industries.In other word, the business strategy is also concerned with strategic business units (SBUs) as each SBU might have its own business strategy, which specifies (1) the scope of that business and its relation to the corporation as a whole, and (2) how it proposes to position itself within its particular industry to achieve competitive advantage in various ways according to Hayes et al (1988). To be effective, elaborated further from Porter (1980), this advantage must meet important customer needs, take into account competitors’ strengths and weaknesses, and be sustainable given the SBU’s capabilities.Empirical evidence from a study over 100 companies by Sterman (2000) found that those companies th at engaged in system level thinking about their business strategies significantly outperformed those that focused at the product level. To be more specific, Hax and Wilde 2001 differentiated three views a company might consider in developing a strategy. For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. 1. Best Product- this view emerges from the classic competitive strategy.It focuses on competing by positioning the company’s products or services as low cost, having a unique set of features, or targeting a focused or niche segment in the market. 2. Total Customer Solution- the customer is at the center and the earliest to satisfy. It argues that very good understanding of customer and developing close relationships with those customers to support them in creating their own economic value.Company competing with this view will focus on supply chains to response to provide family of products or services that closely match customer requirement. 3. System Lock-In- this view com prehends the enterprise, the customers, the suppliers, and the most important those company whose product and services enhance the strategy-making company’s own product and service portfolio. The key to success in this view is to identify, attract and nurture those companies whose products and services are complementary, engaging them in a collective effort to please the customer.In this study, companies engaged in â€Å"system lock-in† far outperformed those employing â€Å"total customer solutions† or â€Å"best product† strategies on both Market Value Added (MVA) and Market-to-Book Value (MBV) as in Exhibit 1: Exhibit 1 Relative Performance of Three Positioning Strategies Strategy Best Product Total customer solutions System lock-in Number of companies in the study Relative Market Value Added Performance Relative Market-to-Book Value Performance 74 67 16 1. 0 1. 6 4. 0 1. 0 1. 2 2. 0 Source: Hax and Wilde, The Delta Project: Discovering New Sources of Profitability in a Network Economy, Pelgrave, 2001.Thus, to develop business strategy, the company must think about its positioning not only to its competitors but also its customers, suppliers and potential complementary product or service producers. Understanding the system-level view, the company will be able to provide better solutions from integration of value chain with attention to company produce the products or services that complement its products and services or any other solutions. However, the understanding customer is more critical to strategy development and execution.Hayes and Wheelwright (1984) and Fine and Hax (1985) had proposed five dimensions to use as the framework which are Cost, Quality, Availability, Features/ innovativeness and Environmental/ performance. Cost The cost has been defined as the cost of the product or service to the customer. Cost this includes not only purchase price of the product or service, but the cost of ownership as well. The aspects of cost to customer will be vary on the industry or category of the product such as the cost customer consumer product will be only on its selling price.While industrial product, like machine and equipment, will be more likely For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. to extend its concern on installation, maintain and others cost related not only to the equipment alone. Quality The quality defined by Garvin (1988) and King (1987) is broken down into two aspects, the tangible and intangible. The tangible aspects of quality include the aesthetics of the product, or output of the service, how reliable it is over period of time, whether or not it is safe, and how convenience to fix and etc.While the intangible aspects include the competence, courtesy, and credibility of the people involved in the process, as well as the degree to which those people understand the customer’s needs and communicate well with the customers. They also include assessments of the environment s urrounding the purchase process or service, including considerations such as accessibility and security. In addition, to examine the quality, it may be important to differentiate assessments of the actual quality delivered from the quality perceived by the customer.Availability The availability dimension is increasingly important and demanding by customers. Availability requirements clearly vary by business. Grocery store customers expect products to be available on the shelf when they go shopping. An out-of-stock item is a lost of sale for a particular brand or product and also may be lost of sale for the store itself. Airlines buying airplanes, on the other end of the spectrum, do not expect to buy their products off the shelf, but they do expect delivery when promised.Plans are made months ahead, or in some cases years ahead, of projected delivery to put the new aircraft into service immediately upon delivery, possibly retiring and replacing another aircraft. Late deliveries can cause great disruption to an airline’s entire schedule. Availability applies to new product introductions as well. Some industries such as consumer electronics focus on fast time-to-market for new products. Others have longer product development and introduction cycles but must delivery new products when promised. Moreover, availability refers to the variety of the products a company offers.There is a wide range of ways in which companies offer customized products or services to their customers. Hence, availability describes the firm’s ability to deliver the variety of products or services its customers want when they want them. Features and Innovativeness The inherent characteristics of the product or service is Features such as the featured services from the first or business class fares on full service airlines like Japan Airline, Thai Airways or less featured services, such as passage on Southwest Airlines’, and Airasia’s â€Å"no frills† fligh t.Innovativeness is closely related to features due to the fact that advanced technologies are developed to be new featured of the product. For instance, global positioning systems (GPS), as innovative technology, is equipped with hi-end car and represent as additional feature. Environmental Performance It may apply to the product (or tangible output of a service) itself, or to the process by which that product was made or service delivered. Environmental management systems, for example, focus on processes and aim to reduce For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. the environmental impact (e. . hazardous waste generation) of the processes used to make the products or deliver the services. ISO 14000 and the European Eco-Management & Audit Scheme (EMAS, www. quality. co. uk/emas. htm) are but two of several frameworks for companies to follow to improve environmental performance. The third level is composed of the functional strategies that support the type of competitive a dvantage to be pursued. A typical functional strategy is the sets of decisions made in each of the functional areas of an organization that determine how it will use in the overall business strategy of the company.Research and development managers make decisions about technology use, engineering resource allocation, product development process, research and development skills and organization, product prototyping and testing approaches, and involvement of customers in product development. Marketing managers make decisions about product and service positioning, advertising and promotion, and customer relationship management. Finance and Accounting managers make decisions about sources of funds, resource allocation, and currency hedging.The decisions make in these various functions make up the overall business strategy of the organization. Synergistic decision making among the functional support of an overall business strategy and leverage cross-functional capabilities to create and s upport business strategy direction is allowing the company to be successful. Beckman and Rosenfield (2008) have integrated these strategy into framework illustrated in Exhibit X. X. Each individual functional area may develop its own capabilities that in turn serve business strategy, or the functional areas may work in concert with another to create overarching capabilities.Business strategy is best supported, when the activities undertaken by the functional areas and/or the capabilities they develop complement one another and work together to achieve the goal of business (Fine and Hax 1985). They refer to this requirement as crossfunctional integration or fit. OPERATIONS STRATEGY An operations strategy is a set of goals, policies, and self-imposed restrictions that together describe how the organization proposes to direct and develop all the resources invested in operations so as to best fulfill (and possibly redefine) its mission (Hayes et al 1998).In the case of business organiza tion, the mission usually is expressed terms of survival, profitability, and growth, and is pursued by trying to differentiate itself from its competitors in some desirable way. A company’s operation strategy, then, has to begin by specifying how it proposes to support that chosen form of competitive differentiation. By integrating resources invested in the operations function into a cohesive, purposeful whole, such a strategy can enable operations to become a powerful source of competitive advantage. For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph.D. Operations Strategy Goal As described earlier, five dimensions of customer requirements which are cost, quality, availability, feature/innovativeness, and environmental performance has been mapped with operations performance measures by Fine and Hax (1985). In each case, operations can affect some, but not all, of the company’s performance along that dimension. Cost Operations directly affects the cost of the product or service and thus its purchase price (assuming that products are priced to achieve some profit) through its direct or indirect control of the supply chain.It can also affect the product’s cost of ownership through joint efforts with engineering (research and development) and/or marketing in the design of the product or service. Quality Operations also directly controls the quality of the product or service, again through its direct or indirect control of the supply chain. This is often thought of as a â€Å"conformance to specifications† task as operations strives to have all products and services delivered meet the specification set forth by the developers on behalf of the customers.Operations can also influence the design of a product or service so that it can be produced or delivered with higher quality. It does so, again, in joint efforts with research and development and marketing. Availability Operations is primarily responsible for the availability of products or services already in the market and often determines make-to-order versus make-to-stock strategies. Operations’ flexibility and process knowledge are critical in determining both the variety of features and the availability an organization can offer.The ability of operations to control the supply chain and the timeliness with which products or services can be delivered directly affects availability. The determination of how much flexibility operations can offer is a joint decision with marketing and research and development. Features/Innovativeness Generally, features are the purview of the marketing and research and development organizations, although the operations function is influential in determining the range of products, services, or features the firm will be able to provide based on its won ability to deliver them.Process knowledge and innovation are key to the organization’s ability to customize output to specific customer needs, to embed new innovations, and to allow research and development to create novel products and services. For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. Exhibit 2: Business and Operations Strategy Performance Dimensions Dimension Cost Customer Concerns Purchase price Cost of ownership Operations Influence Costs of: Materials Production Delivery Distribution Capital Productivity Inventory turnover Design for cost Cost Objectives are measured using labor, materials, and capacity productivity; inventory turnover; unit cost.Quality of: Materials Production Delivery Distribution Design for quality Quality measures include percent defective or rejected, frequency of failure in the field, cost of quality, and mean time between failures. Availability Timeliness of delivery of product or service Ability to respond to volume fluctuations Timeliness of new product introductions Delivery performance is measured by percentage of on-time shipments, average delay, expediting response time. Flexibility is measured by product mix range, volume, and lead time for new products.Process capability Capabilities for more featured and innovative products and services Process knowledge and ability to extend it Design and development capabilities Measures of process capability assess the types of products or services that can be delivered. Environmental performance Managing environmental performance of suppliers or other partners in the supply chain Managing the environmental performance of internal production or service delivery operations Environmental performance measures include both emissions measures (water, air, and solid waste) as well as measures of product reuse and recyclability.Quality Tangible characteristics Aesthetics Reliability, durability, and safety Serviceability Intangible characteristics Competence, courtesy, understanding, and communication Access and security For purchase: Off-the-shell or make-toorder Of new products: Rapid cycle or planned evolution Variety of range of products availabl e: Degree of customization Availability Features/ innovativeness Inherent characteristics of a product or service Degree of innovation Environmental performanceDegree to which process that produces and delivers the product or service is environmentally sound Degree to which the product or service itself is environmentally sound and reusable or recyclable For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. Source: Fine and Hax. (1985), â€Å"Manufacturing Strategy: A Methodology and an Illustration,† Interfaces 15, no. 6 (November-December) cited in Beckman, Sara L. , Rosenfield, Donald B. (2008). Operations Strategy: Competing in the 21st Century, U. S. : McGraw-Hill International Edition. Environmental Performance Finally, operations own the environmental erformance of both internal and external operations throughout the supply chain. It either works with suppliers to achieve adequate environmental performance in their facilities or works to achieve it in internal Operation s or both. Operations may also influence research and development to design products that are more environmentally sound (e. g. , easier to disassemble and recycle). Operations Goals in Practice Researchers have identified many alternative categorizations of these operations performance dimensions over the years (Dangayach and Deshmukh 2001).Some identify many categories such as the following 11: low cost, design flexibility, volume flexibility, quality conformance, product performance, speed of delivery, dependability of deliveries, after sales service, advertising, broad distributions, and broad product line (Miller and Roth 1994). Others summarize the characteristics in fewer categories defined as follows (Spring and Biadeb 1997): Cost: produce and distribute product (or service) at low cost. Quality: manufacture or deliver product or service with high quality or performance standards.Delivery dependability: meet delivery schedules. Flexibility: react to changes in product, chang es in product mix, modifications to design, fluctuations in materials, and changes in sequence. Yet others link clusters of operations performance characteristics into stylized business strategies such as those of caretaker, marketer, and innovator (miller and Roth 1994). Some researchers have examined similarities and differences in emphasis on these performance categories by industry, by geography, and over time.One study, for example, found that computer and electronics companies rate high product quality as their most important competitive factor, but computer companies rate innovative features and designs more highly than do electronics companies, while electronics companies place more emphasis on short lead times than do computer companies (Lau 2002). Others have found important differences among various countries or geographies in the emphasis they place on these characteristics. After achieving a high level of quality, for example, Japanese manufacturers turned their focus t o time-based competition and innovative products, while the U.S. and Europe continued to rank quality as a critical objective (Kenney and Florida 1993). The Manufacturing Futures Survey, which collected longitudinal data over many years, found that lasting improvements in manufacturing can only be achieved by first building quality, followed by delivery reliability, then flexibility and responsiveness, and then technological leadership. At each For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. step of the progression, cost efficiency is pursued for the given capability set, culminating with an overall focus on cost leadership (Roth et al. 989, Miller et al. 1989). Operations Decision Categories Creating an operations strategy essentially entails making a set of decisions about the structure and infrastructure of operations (Skinner 1969, Hayes and Wheelwright 1984). Structural decisions deal with the vertical integration of the operations, its facilities, capacity, and process te chnology, whereas infrastructure decisions focus on organizational and human resource policies, sourcing and supply chain management practices, quality management systems, planning and control systems, and information technology.Infrastructure is developed over time through persistent day-to-day practice, top management commitment, and cross-functional efforts to create capabilities that support and leverage the firm’s structure. Infrastructure decisions usually deal with less tangible outcomes than do structural decisions, but it is the effective integration and synthesis of structural and infrastructural decisions that create long-term operations excellence (Dangayach and Deshmukh 2001).In making decisions in each of these categories, operations managers strive to ensure that the decisions are mutually supportive and consistent with one another. Further, they aim to have the collection of decisions support or facilitate the overall business strategy. The decision categories are briefly discussed hereunder. Structural Decisions Vertical Integration. Vertical integration decisions answer questions about how much of the Value chain a firm should own. Should they own more or less of the value chain reaching back to their suppliers?Should they own more or less of the value chain reaching forward to their customers? Issues considered include cost of the business to be acquired or entered; degree of supplier reliability; the proprietary or nonproprietary nature of the product or process to be brought in house; transaction costs of contracting through market versus non-market mechanisms; and impact on risk, product quality, cost structure, and degree of focus. Process Technology. Process technology decisions relate to the firm’s investment in the technology it uses to transform materials and/or nformation into products and/or services. Evaluation of this investment requires a firm to address several questions: Should its process be more labor intensive or more automated? Should it purchase technology or develop it in house, or use some combination there of? Should it be a follower or a leader in process technology investment? How does its process technology investment fit with its product technology development strategy? Capacity Capacity decisions establish how much capacity the firm will carry in order to manage both short-term fluctuations in demand and longer-term growth opportunities.Capacity For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. may be added gradually or in large chunks. How should the firm deal with cyclical demand? Different types of capacity may be added at different times. How should the firm use capacity to influence its competitors’ decisions or actions? Facilities Facilities decisions are often closely related to capacity decisions, as firms may add or close facilities in response to a need for more or less capacity, but are often longer-term.In thinking through its facilities decisions, a firm will answer questions about how many facilities it should have, where they should be located, and what they should do. Facilities issues become even more crucial in a global environment as firms decide whether to locate facilities near the local market to increase share in that market, to access local technologies, to reduce costs, or to leverage local talent. Infrastructural Decisions Sourcing. Sourcing decisions follow closely from vertical integration decisions.Once a firm has decided not to own certain parts of its value chain, it must determine what types of relationships it should have with the entities outside the boundaries of the firm. Should the suppliers be managed with the five forces competitive-strategy framework suggested by Porter in this chapter, or with the more cooperative approach modeled by the Japanese keiretsu? Business processes, such as product and service Business Processes and Policies. generation, order fulfillment, and service and support, cut across fun ctional boundaries in an organization and are critical in serving the customer.Business process decisions include determining and defining critical processes, setting performance goals for each, and then choosing an appropriate organizational design to met those goals. Some of the organizational design questions include: How should the operations organization be structured? What are the roles of the line and staff organizations? What skills are required in operations? How should those skills be developed and retained? How should Those skills be developed and retained? How should operations personnel be rewarded? Supply Chain Coordination.While business process management focuses inside the organization, operations management today often requires management of multiple sources, markets, and flows outside the firm as well. Thus, operations managers face strategic decisions about the structure of the supply chains. Should they co-locate their own operations with those of their supplier s? How many layers should they have in their distribution networks? What modes of transportation are appropriate for which links in the supply chain? How should flows of goods among the various entities in the supply chain be monitored?Information Technology. Information technology and process technology decision are closely related, but process technology decisions relate to the physical equipment with which products and services are made and delivered, while information technology refers to the system that moves information around the operations function, between operations and the other functional areas in the firm, and among the players in the broader supply For IBM4710 Inter OM Chayakrit Asvathitanont, Ph. D. chain. There are a number of decisions operations managers make about their information technology.How automated should information processing be? Should information systems be purchased or developed internally? Should the firm be a follower or a leader in the development and/or use of state-of-the-art-technology? How does the information technology investment fit with other investments the firm is making? Operations Capabilities Development. There is some evidence that traditional operations improvement programs such as lean manufacturing, just-in-time, total quality management, focused factories, and the like are misused by managers.Often hastily adopted as an industry best practice or in emulation of a competitor, these programs can yield poor results, wasted effort, and missed opportunities for an organization. When thoughtfully and fully implemented, however, they can be enormously successful. In developing operations strategy, managers must examine such programs and consider the capabilities required to develop and implement them. REFERENCES Andrews, K. (1971). The Concept of Corporate Strategy, Dow Jones-Irwin: Homewood, IL. Beckman, S. L. , D. B. Rosenfield. (2008). Operations Strategy: Competing in the 21st Century, U.S. : McGraw-Hill Intern ational Edition. Dangayach, G. S. and S. G. Deshmukh. 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